Electronics have greatly influenced modern society, not just telecommunications and entertainment but also education, healthcare, transportation, manufacturing, computing, and security.
A critical component in electric devices is a semiconductor, also known as a chip. A semiconductor is a material with some of the properties of both insulators and conductors. It can be modified to meet the specific needs of the electronic component in which it resides. Its functions include amplification of signals, switching, and energy conversion.
The semiconductor industry is focused on developing smaller, faster, and cheaper products and is constantly exploring new materials to achieve these goals and advance the next generation of electronic devices.
Exploring Non-toxic Tin (SN)-Based Perovskites for Semiconductors
Among emerging semiconductors, the metal-halide perovskite has been getting traction thanks to its superb charge transport properties and inexpensive, large-area deposition capability at low temperatures.
Metal halides are compounds formed when metal and halogen elements combine. Examples include sodium chloride, which is salt, and uranium hexafluoride, which is the fuel used in nuclear energy reactors.
Perovskites are a class of materials with an ABO3 crystal structure. Here, A is a rare earth element, while B is a transition metal. These materials are produced by thermal decomposition of acetates, nitrates, and carbonates at high temperatures between 600 and 900 degrees Celsius.
Among metal-halide perovskites, the nontoxic tin (Sn)-based candidates with their unique crystal structure have emerged as promising candidates. Tin-based semiconductors are highly desirable materials for energy applications due to their low toxicity and biocompatibility.
A study1 conducted by researchers from Iowa State University turned to tin-based chalcohalides, which are being explored as semiconductors for multiple applications. They actually boast optoelectronic properties, exhibit inherently high stability, and power conversion efficiency.
The study focused on the development of multinary tin chalcohalide semiconductors, using a versatile solution-phase method, as lead-free alternatives for optoelectronic applications. It validated that the tin chalcohalides demonstrate remarkable water stability under ambient conditions and excellent resistance to heat over time compared to halide perovskites. With this work, the aim has been to help engineer more stable and biocompatible semiconductors and devices.
High-Performance P-Channel TFTs for Speed & Efficiency
When it comes to nontoxic tin (Sn)-based cTin (Sn2+)-halide perovskites, the likes of caesium tin triiodide (CsSnI3), formamidinium tin triiodide (FASnI3), and methylammonium tin triiodide (MASnI3), show potential in the development of high-performance p-channel thin-film transistors (TFTs).
TFTs are most commonly used in liquid crystal displays (LCDs) and are the driving force behind flat-panel displays on smartphones, tablets, laptops, desktops, and HD TVs.
When using our devices, thousands of microscopic components, aka transistors, operate tirelessly behind the scenes, regulating electric currents to display images and ensure smooth operation.
Now, transistors are categorized as n-type (electron transport) and p-type (hole transport). N-type devices generally demonstrate superior performance. But if we want to achieve high-speed computing while consuming low power, p-type transistors also need to attain comparable efficiency.
Hence, the focus is on high-performance p-channel thin-film transistors. To produce TFTs, usually a semiconductor such as silicon or metal oxides and a dielectric layer, usually of inorganic materials, are deposited over a non-conducting substrate like glass or plastic.
Now, if we want to use the perovskites as channel layers, aka semiconductor material, in thin-film transistor applications, we need to adjust their extreme hole concentration. We also need to control the crystallization process to extend the scattering time.
To regulate the nucleation and crystallization of Sn2+-halide perovskite precursors, composition engineering methods are used. They allow TFTs to achieve high hole field-effect mobilities that are on the level of low-temperature polycrystalline devices, which are primarily used in the solar photovoltaic and electronics industries.
The main deposition technique used for Sn2+-halide perovskite thin films is solution processing, which is like soaking ink into paper. This technique provides rapid optimization trials cost-effectively.
This fast progress in the lab as well as the prospects for future low-cost, high-throughput fabrication are the reason why most research surrounding halide perovskite materials’ usage in optoelectronics is primarily centred around solution-based deposition methods.
In the real world, however, this is not at all the case. That is because transferring the technique from the lab to an industrial environment is challenging. When implemented in an opto-electronic industrial production chain, even the most experienced ones struggle to achieve enough production yield and reproducibility with this method.
So, while solution-processed tin (Sn2+)-halide perovskites are viable for p-channel TFTs with performance comparable to that of commercial low-temperature polysilicon technology, the problem arises not only in consistent quality but also in scalability and commercialization due to their low compatibility with the existing manufacturing processes for flat-panel displays and semiconducting devices.
Vapor-based Deposition Techniques Take the Charge
Vapor deposition has emerged as an alternative to solution-based techniques to produce Thin-Film Transistors (TFTs).
It is actually a popular and leading technique for commercialized thin-film electronics due to its simplicity, excellence in precision, superb film quality, and compatibility with conventional production processes.
The thickness and morphology of the thin film actually have a critical impact on a device’s performance, and vapor deposition allows for their precise manipulation.
Both physical vapor deposition (PVD) and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) offer excellent control over film thickness, composition, and properties.
Due to the limitations of solution-based techniques, vapor-based deposition techniques are the most commonly used in real industrial environments, especially in photovoltaic manufacturing. For instance, leading PV solar energy solution provider, First Solar (FSLR +5.53%), uses vapor processing to produce their cadmium telluride solar cells. Another example is Heliatek GmbH, which uses thermal evaporation for their commercial organic photovoltaics.
But, of course, vapor-based deposition techniques aren’t without their challenges. This includes high costs, process complexity, limited throughput, and limitations on substrate size and shape.
A study from last year introduced a novel method2 called continuous flash sublimation (CFS) to overcome the limitations of vapor deposition in producing high-quality inorganic halide perovskite films.
Their CFS technique enabled rapid and continuous deposition, reducing fabrication time and enhancing film uniformity, which is crucial for scalable manufacturing of perovskite-based devices.
According to the study findings, using films derived via CFS in practical solar cells resulted in performance that was not only at the level of solution-deposited films but also superior to previously reported vapor-deposited all-inorganic perovskite devices.
The research reported power conversion efficiencies of 15%, providing the “most efficient vapor-processed solar cells employing an inorganic halide perovskite absorber” while solving the challenges with vapor-processed perovskite solar cells, including too long processing times and the lack of continuous deposition, both of which obstruct the swift application of vapor-based approaches on an industrial scale.
Revolutionizing Semiconductors with Vaporized CsSnI3 Layers
The crystallization processes of vapor deposition involve slow solid reactions, in contrast with fast ionic reactions in solution processing.
This makes it a challenge to achieve high-quality, high-mobility Sn2+-perovskite channels with suitable hole density through vapor deposition.
To overcome the limitations, a team of researchers led by Dr. Youjin Reo and Professor Yong-Young Noh from the Department of Chemical Engineering at Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) has developed a groundbreaking technology.
What the team did was they made use of a thermal evaporation approach with CsSnI3 (inorganic caesium tin iodide) to fabricate p-channel Sn2+-halide perovskite TFTs, which showcase potential in revolutionizing next-generation displays and electronic devices.
The study, which was collaboratively conducted with Professors Huihui Zhu and Ao Liu from the University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC), was published in Nature Electronics3 and received support from the Korean Government, the National Natural Science Foundation of China, and Samsung Display Corporation.
The team successfully applied thermal evaporation, which is widely used to manufacture semiconductor chips and OLED TVs, to produce high-quality CsSnI3 semiconductor layers.
Under this method, materials are vaporized at high temperatures to create thin films on a substrate.
In addition to vapor-depositing inorganic CsSnI3-based p-channel TFTs, the team used lead chloride (PbCl2) as an additive. Just by adding a small amount of PbCl2, they improved the uniformity and crystallinity of the perovskite thin films.
The way it worked was that volatile chloride was used here as a reaction initiator, causing solid-state reactions of the as-evaporated perovskite compounds, which extended to complete perovskite phase formation. In turn, this promoted densely packed enlarged grains in a cascaded manner.
Besides facilitating the formation of consistent, high-quality perovskite films, it also modulates the high hole density, making them suitable for channel layer usage.
The study’s optimized TFTs (CsSnI3:PbCl2 TFTs) showed long-term storage stability (over 150 days) and outstanding performance, accomplishing a hole mobility of more than 33.8 cm2 V−1 s−1 and an on/off current ratio (Ion/Ioff) greater than 108. This performance was comparable to currently commercialized n-type oxide semiconductors, which suggests rapid signal processing and low power consumption during switching.
Moreover, the team fabricated a large-scale uniform Sn2+-halide perovskite TFT array. With this achievement, along with boosting device stability, the innovation from POSTECH in collaboration with UESTC researchers effectively overcomes major technical limitations of solution-based methods.
Notably, because it is compatible with existing manufacturing tools used in OLED display production, the technology presents significant potential to reduce costs and streamline fabrication processes.
According to the study, the vapor-deposited TFTs have the potential to be used in backplanes for organic light-emitting diode displays (OLEDs) or in logic devices and circuits for monolithic 3D integration, which need low process temperatures.
“This technology opens up exciting possibilities for the commercialization of ultra-thin, flexible, and high-resolution displays in smartphones, TVs, vertically stacked integrated circuits and even wearable electronics because low processing temperature below 300 oC.”
– Professor Yong-Young Noh
As breakthroughs in semiconductor materials continue to evolve, let’s now take a look at a major investable industry player.
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Investing in Semiconductors
In the world of semiconductors, Intel (INTC +1.69%) is one of the largest companies, and it is heavily invested in developing advanced chip technologies. As the industry shifts towards smaller, more efficient transistors, innovations like vapor-deposited perovskites are of keen interest to Intel, which is looking for alternatives to silicon in specific applications.
Not to mention, Intel is constantly working on integrating new materials into chip design to enhance performance and overall chip architecture.
Intel Corporation (INTC +1.69%)
The company operates through three segments. Intel Products include Network and Edge (NEX), Data Center and AI (DCAI), and Client Computing Group (CCG). The Intel Foundry segment is another one, while All Other segments cover Altera, Mobileye, and others.
The US’s largest chip maker counts major PC manufacturers like Dell, Lenovo, and HP as its clients. It also manufactures cutting-edge chips for the U.S. Department of Defense. Moreover, Intel has secured partnerships with companies like Microsoft, Cisco, SAP, and Amazon.
Intel has a market cap of $91.23 billion, and its shares are currently trading at $20.93, up 4.6% this year so far. Its EPS (TTM) is -4.48, and the P/E (TTM) is -4.68, but no dividend yield is offered to shareholders.
While INTC’s performance has turned positive this year, share prices are still far off from the 2021 peak of almost $67.5. 2023 was a good one for Intel stocks. But last year was a tough one, as prices went under $19, and this year, uncertainty brought in by tariffs and a potential trade war has been affecting the broad stock market.
“The current macro environment is creating elevated uncertainty across the industry,” noted CFO David Zinsner. While the company is taking a “disciplined and prudent approach” in a call with analysts, Zinsner noted that trade policies and regulatory risks “have increased the chance of an economic slowdown, with the probability of a recession growing.”
Some positive news, however, can be seen in the Trump administration’s preparation to reverse U.S. chip export restrictions known as the ‘AI diffusion rule.’ This will end a set of limits that were imposed on semiconductor manufacturers by the Biden administration and are scheduled to take effect on May 15.
Under this rule, countries are organized into three different tiers, and all of them are restricted regarding whether advanced AI chips like those made by Intel and Nvidia can be shipped to the country without a license.
“The Biden AI rule is overly complex, overly bureaucratic, and would stymie American innovation. We will be replacing it with a much simpler rule that unleashes American innovation and ensures American AI dominance.”
– Department of Commerce spokesperson
As for Intel financials, the Q1 of 2025 saw flat YoY growth as revenue came in at $12.7 billion while earnings (loss) per share (EPS) were $(0.19) and non-GAAP EPS was $0.13. This comes after recording $53.1 billion revenue in the entire 2024, which was down 2% YoY, while EPS was $(4.38) and non-GAAP EPS was $(0.13).
Intel Corporation (INTC +1.69%)
The slowdown is expected to continue in the next quarter, with Intel forecasting revenue between $11.2 billion and $12.4 billion. However, the company has announced plans to slash expenses in the coming year, the first under CEO Lip-Bu Tan. Its 2025 operating expenses are expected to be $17 billion, and its 2026 expenses are expected to be $16 billion.
“The first quarter was a step in the right direction, but there are no quick fixes as we work to get back on a path to gaining market share and driving sustainable growth,” said Tan, who’s invested in hundreds of Chinese tech firms. Under him, the company is “taking swift actions to drive better execution and operational efficiency while empowering our engineers to create great products.”
So, Intel is clearly navigating a challenging period. Besides declining revenue and unsatisfactory market performance, the company is losing market share, and its investments in the foundries business have yet to yield significant results. Intel has also had execution failures when launching new products.
But aggressive restructuring under the new leadership, which could see layoffs, speculation surrounding a spinoff or selling a stake in the Foundry operation to TSMC, and the potential to regain its leadership with Intel 18A, which has already secured Microsoft support and is also being looked into by Nvidia and Google, can help Intel make a meaningful comeback, though execution will be critical here.
Latest on Intel Corporation
Conclusion
Semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronics. And with demand for cheaper, faster, and smaller devices, material innovation has become more important than ever.
Against this backdrop, the breakthrough achieved by the latest study showcases huge potential to disrupt conventional thin-film transistor technologies. Advancements in vapor-deposited Sn2+-halide perovskite TFTs have improved thermal stability and compatibility with existing OLED fabrication methods, highlighting a promising future for integrating perovskite-based semiconductors into flexible and 3D electronics.
Through such continued innovations, we are progressing towards a future with highly compact, energy-efficient, and flexible smart devices.
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Studies Referenced:
1. Roth, A. N., Porter, A. P., Horger, S., Ochoa-Romero, K., Guirado, G., Rossini, A. J., & Vela, J. (2024). Lead-free semiconductors: Phase-evolution and superior stability of multinary tin chalcohalides. Chemistry of Materials, 36(9), 4542–4552. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.4c00209
2. Abzieher, T., Muzzillo, C. P., Mirzokarimov, M., Lahti, G., Kau, W. F., Kroupa, D. M., Cira, S. G., Hillhouse, H. W., Kirmani, A. R., Schall, J., Kern, D., Luther, J. M., & Moore, D. T. (2024). Continuous flash sublimation of inorganic halide perovskites: overcoming rate and continuity limitations of vapor deposition. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 12, 8405–8419. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3TA05881F
3. Reo, Y., Zou, T., Choi, T., et al. (2025). Vapour-deposited high-performance tin perovskite transistors. Nature Electronics. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-025-01380-8